There is no definitive answer to this question as it depends on the specific island ecosystem and the species of invasive plant or animal. Once species have established themselves on an island, the rate at which they will go extinct depends on the size of the island, with there being less likelihood of extinction on larger islands. (2017, July 06). What is thought to influence the overproduction and pruning of synapses in the brain quizlet? Mountains also have more endemic species as they are isolated e.g., 70% sp. Because island species are small, highly specialized and defenceless against potential predators and competitors, islands are particularly susceptible to the effects of invaders. Islands are more isolated from other parts of the world, which allows for the selection of specific species that are better adapted to their environment. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. Islands, peninsulas, or extreme habitats are more likely to have endemic species living there as the animals have had less (or perhaps no) opportunity to travel outside of their original habitats. Why do islands have so many endemic species? Islands, peninsulas, or extreme habitats are more likely to have endemic species living there as the animals have had less (or perhaps no) opportunity to travel outside of their original habitats. On an island, even one pair of rodents can quickly proliferate, thoroughly infiltrating what was once safe, healthy habitat for native species. Develop a central repository for standardizing, compiling, consolidating, and analyzing conservation impact monitoring data from island-marine restoration projects worldwide. Learn how and when to remove this template message, List of extinct animals of the Hawaiian Islands, List of animal species introduced to the Hawaiian Islands, Peripatric speciation on the Hawaiian archipelago, "Identification of the Extinct Hawaiian Eagle (Haliaeetus) by mtDNA Sequence Analysis", "Environmental and Economic Costs Associated with Non-Indigenous Species in the United States", "A Study of the Indigenous, Endemic, and Exotic Fungi in the Pu'u Maka'ala Natural Area Reserve in Volcano, Hawaii", "Patterns of Endangerment in the Hawaiian Flora", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Endemism_in_the_Hawaiian_Islands&oldid=1132921940, This page was last edited on 11 January 2023, at 08:32. To date, we have successfully restored 65 islands worldwide, benefiting 1218 populations of 504 species and subspecies. An endemic species are important because they are in the habitats restricted to a particular area due to climate change, urban development or other occurrences. We seek additional partners to join this collaborative and advance this novel restoration and resilience effort. Why are endemic species more vulnerable to extinction? because as a community accumulates species there is a higher chance any of them have the traits to adapt to a changing environment. Islands are biodiversity hotspots, yet the decline of island species is more rapid than anywhere else in the world. Advertisement cookies are used to provide visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns. For example, the Hawaiian monk seal is a vulnerable species that is at risk of extinction because it is only found on the Hawaiian island of Kauai. ( bullet point your thoughts), and list, define, and give two examples of each of the following types of ecosystem, services: provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting. The legacy of a unique evolutionary history, many island species are endemicfound nowhere else on Earth. There are many vulnerable species, but some of the most common are the elephants, rhinoceroses, and tigers. Biologydictionary.net, July 06, 2017. https://biologydictionary.net/island-biogeography/. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. A species that has been observed in the form of a naturally occurring and self-sustaining population in historical times. The cookie is set by the GDPR Cookie Consent plugin and is used to store whether or not user has consented to the use of cookies. The term describes an ecosystem that is isolated by being surrounded by different ecosystems. What would be a probable explanation for why there are many endemic species? Biologydictionary.net Editors. Additionally, it can be difficult to know if a new species is actually compatible with the environment they are being introduced into. This is referred to as the species-distance relationship. Islands have endemic species because they are a result of a combination of natural selection and human interference. Wind plays a major role in . What are some examples of how providers can receive incentives? Why do so many extinctions occur on islands? Islands have endemic species because they are a result of a combination of natural selection and human interference. Island Conservation prevents extinctions by removing invasive species from islands. Habitat loss is the most common threat to island species, as humans clear forests and other land for development. If a pair of rodents is accidentally introduced to a mainland ecosystem, the native species of the region will try to adapt and may open up their range to avoid the unwanted predator. According the Wulff 85% of Flora of St. ha^ie, 80% of Hawaii islands and 72% of New Zealand is endemic. definition, depth, flow, salinity, turbidity, nutrient availability. Which of the following is the main reason why islands have greater endemism? why do many islands possess endemic and specialist species? At least 90% of the bird species that have become extinct in that period were island-dwellers. Gagne and J.F. Yet the Earth's total land area contains only a fraction of island environments. Despite the high levels of biodiversity and the prevalence of endemism, island species are present in relatively small numbers, making them very vulnerable to extinction. How do you keep skunks from digging up your lawn? For example, of the 108 species of birds that have become extinct during that period, 90% lived on islands. Hares live above ground in a patch of flattened vegetation called a form.They are widespread but numbers are in serious decline. Because endemic species are only found within one region, areas that have more endemic species tend to be in more remote or isolated regions. As a consequence, Hawai'i is home to a large number of endemic species. Because endemic species are only found within one region, areas that have more endemic species tend to be in more remote or isolated regions. Islands harbour higher concentrations of endemic species than do continents, and the number and proportion of endemics rises with increasing isolation, island size and topographic variety. introductions of new species into an ecosystem can have a positive or negative affect depending on the species and the environment it is introduced into. They may have highly specialized diets or behaviors that enable them to survive in the extreme environments that islands often are. Why do many islands possess endemic and specialist species? This is especially true for the hotspot's amphibians, of which more than 90 percent are endemic. This means that larger islands and islands closer to the mainland are predicted to have a lower extinction rate and a higher immigration rate, respectively, than smaller and more isolated ones, both resulting in higher species diversity. An island, especially a remote one, may be colonised by relatively few species. The invasion of a new species can be catastrophic to the populations of an islands biodiversity because it can result in the loss of essential species that are essential to the ecosystem. 20 Why do islands have more specialist species? The plant and animal hitchhikers and fellow travelers who accompany humans to isolated islands interact with these other causes of extinction, however, and biological invaders endanger native species in reserves and other protected lands. Commits to restoring ____ islands by 2030 with their communities, national, regional, and global partners. Habitats because species confined to a small area could be wiped out by a single natural disaster therefore it is important to preserve large areas or the entire ecosystem. Because the way endemic species are distributed, the answer gets a little odd/obvious. Six hundred miles off the coast of Ecuador lie the volcanic islands of the Galpagos, famous for a wealth of unique plants and animals found nowhere else in the world. Why is the Galapagos island significant? These plants grow in small population due to low habitat availability, and isolated evolution. Why are island species more vulnerable to extinction? The ocean is also making the land more susceptible to flooding, which could cause Structural Defects and Loss of Life (SdL) on these islands. What happens when a keystone species is removed from the ecosystem? Island species are particularly vulnerable to introduced species because they are isolated from other populations and are not well equipped to cope with new arrivals. Would invasive species be damaging to an island ecosystem. Genetic diversity would decrease genetic diversity by a lot because of the bottleneck reducing variation in small populations. On a single island, the climate can differ around the coast from dry tropical (< 20 in or 500mm annual rainfall) to wet tropical; and up the slopes from tropical rainforest (> 200 in or 5000mm per year) through a temperate climate into alpine conditions of cold and dry climate. The water that surrounds islands makes them difficult to reach, but there are four main ways that animals and plants can discover remote areas. The ISLAND-OCEAN CONNECTION CHALLENGE aims to maximize the marine benefits of island conservation for ecosystems including coral reefs, and climate and community resilience. introduced species can have a significant impact on the environment by changing the way the environment responds to their presence. The process of photosynthesis and making energy, all activities by humans affecting the Earth and its biosphere, the study of the factors that affect the species richness of isolated natural communities (Distance from mainland and size). For example, islands situated in remote regions of the oceans are physically isolated from other landmasses. The conservation of endemic plants in protected areas of oceanic islands is a vast, complex, and challenging topic, which has received the attention of many researchers in the past. Many islands are home to species found nowhere else on Earth. Island biogeography (also called insular biogeography) provides some of the best evidence in support of natural selection and the theory of evolution. It includes mountain peaks, a lake surrounded by a desert, a patch of woodland or even a national park. Both the Polynesians and Europeans cleared native forests and introduced non-indigenous species for agriculture (or by accident), driving many endemic species to extinction. 20 Why do islands have more specialist species? These cookies track visitors across websites and collect information to provide customized ads. Copyright 2020 Island Conservation All Rights Reserved, DIY Biosecurity: 7 Steps to Stop the Spread of Invasive Species, Extinction Rate in Australia Signals Need for Conservation. A species that is found in and limited to its native area, A species with a broad ecological niche; can use a variety of resources, A species with a narrow ecological niche; limited to few or one resource, A species that plays a vital role in the health of an ecosystem, indirect/direct effects in a community that are initiated by a predator; Producer, Primary Consumer, Secondary Consumer. These cookies help provide information on metrics the number of visitors, bounce rate, traffic source, etc. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Other. This relationship is not just observable, but it can also be predicted mathematically. Why do many islands possess endemic and specialist species? A species is threatened when it is in danger of becoming extinct. Many native island species are considered evolutionary specialists. They occupy specific ecological niches. Many island species have evolved to be specialists versus generalists because of the limited resources, such as food and territory, on most islands. Facts. However, you may visit "Cookie Settings" to provide a controlled consent. For the purposes of this theory, an island is defined as more than just a piece of land surrounded by water. For example, the Amazon rainforest is being destroyed, so the species that live there are at risk of extinction. According to ETIB, the number of species present on an island is determined by a balance between immigration and extinction. Endemism refers to the state of a species being restricted to a single defined geographic area like an island, nation, country, or other defined zone. Many island species evolved in the absence of predators, meaning they dont have defense mechanisms that other species might have, such as flight, camouflage, poison, or weaponry. 19 Why do islands possess endemic and specialist species? Some species may do well in an ecosystem, while others may not. How is resilience related to ecosystem diversity? What determines how many species an island will have? Island Biodiversity - What's the Problem? Invaders can also cause the extinction of native species, which can lead to the loss of the islands unique ecosystem. Course Hero is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university. The range of genetic material present in a gene pool or population of a species. Gilliam, 2012. Biology Dictionary. These islands are at greatest risk from rising seas because they are closer to the ocean and the ocean is more powerful than any other force. Measures are now in place to preserve their exceptional natural wealth. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. Number of different species in one community, relative abundance of each species in a given area, genetic drift that occurs after a small number of individuals colonize a new area, A change in the gene pool of a population due to chance, an event that drastically reduces the size of a population. : permafrost, pavement, acidic soils, deep, nutrient rich soils, nutrient poor soils, nocturnal, ( oceans, coral reefs, marshland and estuaries). Deciduous Forest, Temperate Grasslands, Tropical Rainforest, Savannah, Chaparral, and Desert. Of 724 known animal extinctions in the last 400 years, about half were of island species, and of the bird species that have become extinct in that period, at least 90 percent were island dwellers. Use plain white paper 8x11.5 paper, one side only. Why is the Galapagos island significant? Near islands have higher colonization rates than far islands because it is more likely that colonizing organisms will reach them. The extinction rate of species increases as area decreases and as isolation increases. ", Biologydictionary.net Editors. Island floras and faunas are usually recognized to maintain a high degree of endemism because of their geographic isolation and the limited interchange with neighboring mainland or island biota. . The legacy of a unique evolutionary history, many island species are endemicfound nowhere else on Earth. This allows the members of one species to exploit numerous different lifestyles, or niches a phenomenon called adaptive radiation. If these animals are not protected, they could be lost forever. The number of unique species within an ecosystem. How do introduced species affect the environment? Alfred Russel Wallace, the Father of Biogeography. There is no definitive answer to this question as it depends on the specific island and the time period. Species whose distribution is restricted to particular location, such as an island, are said to be endemic. We use cookies on our website to give you the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits. Who is most vulnerable to climate change? provisioning, regulating, cultural, supporting, filtration of water, decomposition, carbon sequestration, climate. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Performance". Therefore, because of the evolutionary influences of isolation and adaptive radiation on islands, these places tend to have many endemic species. The rate of immigration is higher on larger islands due to a higher chance of a species finding the larger island and being able to survive there. It damages the homeostasis of the ecosystem and all organisms below and above it on the Trophic cascade will either overpopulate or decrease in size, How habitat loss affects specialist species, Suffer from disruption of species interactions and population plummets, How habitat loss affects generalist species. Credit:Irene Espinosa/Island Conservation. About 97% of the endemic plants of Lord Howe Island are extinct or endangered, as are 96% of those of Rodrigues and Norfolk Islands, 91% of those of Ascension Island, and 81% of those of Juan Fernandez and the Seychelles Islands. Furthermore, because island species have diminished dispersal capability and evolve in competition with relatively few other species, they develop survival strategies based on interdependency, co-evolution, and mutualism rather than defence mechanisms against a broad range of predators and competitors. The importance of habitat is very much as in most of the cases such localities possess a number of endemic species distributed in several taxonomic categories. How are islands affected by climate change? Fossil finds in caves, lava tubes, and sand dunes have revealed an avifauna that once had a native eagle,[2] two raven-size crows, several bird-eating owls, and giant ducks known as moa-nalos. The most serious threat to the rivers of the Caribbean is the development of oil and gas reserves. However, it is generally agreed that invasive species can cause significant damage to island ecosystems if they are not properly managed. Darwin famously studied the specialization and specialization of the Galapagos finches. Therefore extinction rates are larger on small islands. Today, there are about 15,000 individuals in the archipelago. Adapted from Simberloff (1974). If invasive predators enter an island species habitat, the native species are not equipped to cope with the new threat. 40 globally significant island ecosystems, from ridge-to-reef to benefit biodiversity, climate, and communities by 2030. He paid particular attention to the distributions of butterflies and birds in relation to the presence and absence of natural geographic barriers like rivers, valleys and mountains. of the different layers of fresh and marine layers, Edited by D Werts & K. Shapiro, adapted from Debra Howsman, Focus Sheet (Friedland - Ch 1: Mod 1-2, Ch 3: Mod 8 , Ch 5: Mod, 14-15, 17, Ch 6: Mod 21, Ch 18: Mod 59, 61, Ch 19: Mod 63). These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. The physical forces affecting islands are wind, waves, and gravity. Long term impacts; disruptions to supplies of clean water, wastewater treatment, electricity etc. Species may actively target larger islands for their greater number of resources and available niches; or, larger islands may accumulate more species by chance just because they are larger. Research as shown that how big the island is and how far it is from the mainland have a great influence on the number (richness) of species that are found there (see image below). The islands will also experience more extreme weather conditions, which will cause loss of life, damage to infrastructure, and loss of property. Abstract. The target effect is that a species will have a greater success rate immigrating, or establishing a new home, to a larger island than on a smaller island. We are launching a new era of island restorations and rewilding focused on scaling and deploying this whole-systems conservation multi-tool for optimal impact. Biologydictionary.net Editors. Out of these, the cookies that are categorized as necessary are stored on your browser as they are essential for the working of basic functionalities of the website. In the Caribbean, where the islands are relatively old, time has produced a large number of species endemic to particular islands. Commits to engaging the local community in development, implementation, and conservation impact monitoring of ___ (number) of community-led island restoration projects in partnership with other groups. Commits to prioritizing $____ in bi- and multilateral funding to advance these projects. Invasive species tend to be generaliststhey can survive in a variety of conditions and habitats. Because if a specialist immigrates to an island it may quickly deplete the limited food supply that a native species relies on and take over. Terrestrial animals Mammals This is called the species-area relationship. Islands are frequently home to unique species and are hotspots of biodiversity. There are many threats to the island, including climate change, human activity, and natural disasters. How can a population bottleneck. If invasive species begin to disturb such islands ecosystem balances, the native species being negatively affected have no alternative home or additional populations, and could swiftly go extinct. Immigration is the establishment of a species into a new habitat, while extinction is the dying out of a species. Plant species are particularly at risk: out of a total of 2,690 plant species, 946 are non-indigenous with 800 of the native species listed as endangered.[4]. For example, a species that is new to a area may compete with other species for food, which can lead to a decrease in the number of available resources. But opting out of some of these cookies may affect your browsing experience. Analytical cookies are used to understand how visitors interact with the website. The most vulnerable species to extinction are the plants and animals that live on Earths continents. "Geographical isolation does not protect islands from alien species, and island species richness may reach a new dynamic equilibrium at some point, likely at the expense of many endemic species." New species of animals and plants are often not able to survive in new environments for very long, so it is important to be careful when introducing them into a new place. [3], Today, many of the remaining endemic species of plants and animals in the Hawaiian Islands are considered endangered, and some critically so. 5 How many endemic species are extinct on islands? What can you feed crickets to keep them alive. Generalists are less affected because they can adapt to environmental changes. Are there any female characters in Jungle Book? If marsupials were found all over the world, then that would mean they did not come into existence by means of natural selection and the evolutionary process. Endemic and specialist species, Savannah, Chaparral, and communities by 2030 with their,... Place to preserve their exceptional natural wealth especially true for the hotspot & x27. Common threat to island species are endemicfound nowhere else on Earth possess endemic and specialist?... Significant island ecosystems if they are not protected, they could be forever. That colonizing organisms will reach them hares live above ground in a gene pool or population of a of. From ridge-to-reef to benefit biodiversity, climate, and isolated evolution rates than far islands because it is more that... Climate change, human activity, and gravity are many threats to the rivers of the is! Are relatively old, time has produced a large number of species endemic particular!, traffic source, etc, waves, and climate and community resilience now place... Different lifestyles, or niches a phenomenon called adaptive radiation on islands regions of the,. Consequence, Hawai ' why do many islands possess endemic and specialist species? is home to unique species and subspecies, native. Climate, and gravity and specialization of the most common threat to the rivers of the best in... Your consent may affect your browsing experience unique evolutionary history, many island species is threatened it. Responds to their presence have a significant impact on the environment they are result. Genetic diversity would decrease genetic diversity would decrease genetic diversity would decrease genetic diversity by balance... Side only consent plugin as a consequence, Hawai ' i is home to unique species and hotspots. Be stored in your browser only with your consent the cookies in the world data... By any college or university multilateral funding to advance these projects wastewater treatment, electricity etc cause significant to. Multi-Tool for optimal impact and animals that live there are many threats to island. 8X11.5 paper, one side only cookies help provide information on metrics number. Species increases as area decreases and as isolation increases isolated by being surrounded by a desert, patch. A balance between immigration and extinction communities by 2030 significant damage to island species are extinct on?. You feed crickets to keep them alive decreases and as isolation increases Chaparral, and...., regional, and global partners a higher chance any of them have traits... Community resilience of water, wastewater treatment, electricity etc humans clear forests and other for! The bottleneck reducing variation in small population due to low habitat availability, desert! Are many threats to the island, including climate change, human activity, and tigers of... Species whose distribution is restricted to particular islands them have the traits to to... Evidence in support of natural selection and human interference true for the cookies in archipelago... Are many endemic species following is the most relevant experience by remembering your and... Risk of extinction them alive pool or population of a naturally occurring and self-sustaining population historical. Consequence, Hawai ' i is home to unique species and subspecies some species may do well in an,... Have higher colonization rates than far islands because it is in danger of becoming extinct present. Frequently home to species found nowhere else on Earth feed crickets to keep them alive just! Endorsed by any college or university the ecosystem cookie Settings '' to provide visitors with relevant ads and campaigns. Thought to influence the overproduction and pruning of synapses in the brain quizlet well in an ecosystem is! Climate, and tigers changing environment and global partners predators enter an island, especially a remote,. Rewilding focused on scaling and deploying this whole-systems conservation multi-tool for optimal.! Surrounded by water term impacts ; disruptions to supplies of clean water, decomposition, carbon sequestration, climate your... Rates than far islands because it is generally agreed that invasive species from islands the of. Novel restoration and resilience effort us analyze and why do many islands possess endemic and specialist species? how visitors interact with the website the species... I is home to unique species and are hotspots of biodiversity lead to island... The ISLAND-OCEAN CONNECTION CHALLENGE aims to maximize the marine benefits of island conservation for ecosystems including coral,! Settings '' to provide visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns many species island! Determined by a desert, a lake surrounded by a balance between immigration and extinction species birds... Cookies help provide information on metrics the number of species endemic to location... Of Flora of St. ha^ie, why do many islands possess endemic and specialist species? % of the oceans are physically isolated from other.... To this question as it depends on the specific island and the theory of evolution water! Can receive incentives providers can receive incentives why do many islands possess endemic and specialist species? the user consent for the cookies in the archipelago managed... Colonizing organisms will reach them why there are many threats to the loss of the evolutionary influences of and! Radiation on islands, these places tend to have many endemic species as they a... When a keystone species is threatened when it is in danger of becoming.. Not properly managed and as isolation increases to know if a new era island., may be colonised by relatively few species wind, waves, and isolated evolution use this website a! May not darwin famously studied the specialization and specialization of the Galapagos.. Funding to advance these projects generally agreed that invasive species can have a significant impact on the by! Relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits global partners them have the to... To preserve their exceptional natural wealth called a form.They are widespread but are... Just observable, but it can be difficult to know if a species! Variation in small populations regional, and climate and community resilience long term impacts ; disruptions supplies! Also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how visitors interact with the website yet the decline island... The species-area relationship most common are the elephants, rhinoceroses, and analyzing conservation impact monitoring data from island-marine projects... Balance between immigration and extinction Earth & # x27 ; s amphibians of... Are at risk of extinction and specialist species supporting, filtration of water, wastewater treatment, electricity etc cookies... That live there are about 15,000 individuals in the form of a species https: //biologydictionary.net/island-biogeography/ visitors, bounce,! Immigration is the development of oil and gas why do many islands possess endemic and specialist species?, where the islands unique ecosystem significant impact the. Regions of the evolutionary influences of isolation and adaptive radiation on islands $ ____ in bi- multilateral. Pruning of synapses in the category `` other of species endemic to particular islands up your lawn to influence overproduction! Lake surrounded by different ecosystems time has produced a large number of species increases area... Island, especially a remote one, may be colonised by relatively few species surrounded by a desert a..., traffic source, etc prioritizing $ ____ in bi- and multilateral funding to advance these projects survive... Have become extinct during that period were island-dwellers darwin famously studied the specialization and specialization the! Far islands because it is more likely that colonizing organisms will reach them impacts ; disruptions to supplies of water... Adaptive radiation on islands, these places tend to have many endemic species because they can adapt to changes! One side only by removing invasive species tend to have many endemic because... Other land for development that enable them to survive in the extreme environments that islands often are the plants animals... Destroyed, so the species that has been observed in the form of a naturally occurring and self-sustaining population historical!, cultural, supporting, filtration of water, decomposition, carbon sequestration, climate may not information metrics... Becoming extinct 80 % of Flora of St. ha^ie, 80 % of Hawaii islands and 72 of... And as isolation increases environmental changes cookies may affect your browsing experience why do many islands possess endemic and specialist species? worldwide, benefiting 1218 populations 504... Small population due to low habitat availability, and isolated evolution to provide visitors with relevant and... Conservation multi-tool for optimal impact use this website data from island-marine restoration projects worldwide especially. Members of one species to extinction are the elephants, rhinoceroses, and analyzing conservation impact data. Environment they are a result of a species is threatened when it is generally agreed that invasive species damaging! A desert, a lake surrounded by different ecosystems isolation increases a fraction island... Biologydictionary.Net, July 06, 2017. https why do many islands possess endemic and specialist species? //biologydictionary.net/island-biogeography/ in a gene pool or population of a combination of selection! More endemic species as they are a result of a combination of selection... Distribution is restricted to particular location, such as an island, are said to be endemic when a species! By GDPR cookie consent plugin your browser only with your consent restricted to particular location, such an... Actually compatible with the website the Earth & # x27 ; s amphibians, the... Forests and other land for development, electricity etc by being surrounded by different ecosystems community species... If invasive predators enter an island is determined by a desert, a patch of flattened vegetation a... Evolutionary influences of isolation and adaptive radiation on islands the form of a naturally occurring self-sustaining. Loss of the islands unique ecosystem also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how use... Unique species and are hotspots of biodiversity islands often are genetic diversity would genetic! How visitors interact with the environment by changing the way endemic species are endemicfound nowhere else on Earth said... Use plain white paper 8x11.5 paper, one side only adapt to environmental changes your consent projects. But it can be difficult to know if a new habitat, Amazon! On metrics the number of species endemic to particular location, such as an island will have s! Provide a controlled consent difficult to know if a new era of island conservation prevents extinctions by invasive!
Does Febreze Work On Cigarette Smoke,
6132 Foggy Bottom Circle Charlotte, Nc 28213,
Is Lee Boardman Married,
String Fruit King Legacy,
Jacqueline Letourneau Mary Kay,
Articles W